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– 2 years ago **files (9)** – ## Chapter3.1_Cognitivesystemsasfunctionalsystems-revised.ppt – ## Chapter3.docx – ## Chapter3.5_Studyingmemoryforvisualevents-addedfor3rdedition.ppt – ## Chapter3.4_Mappingthestagesoflexicalprocessing-revisedfor3rdedition.ppt – ## Chapter3.4_Mappingthestagesoflexic…
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– 2 years ago
**files (9)**
– ## Chapter3.1_Cognitivesystemsasfunctionalsystems-revised.ppt
– ## Chapter3.docx
– ## Chapter3.5_Studyingmemoryforvisualevents-addedfor3rdedition.ppt
– ## Chapter3.4_Mappingthestagesoflexicalprocessing-revisedfor3rdedition.ppt
– ## Chapter3.4_Mappingthestagesoflexicalprocessing-revisedfor3rdedition.ppt
– ## Chapter3.3_Extendingcomputationalmodelingtothebrain-revisedfor3rdedition.ppt
– Chapter4.3_TheRussianroomargument-revisedfor3rdedition.ppt
– Chapter3.2_Theanatomyofthebrainandprimaryvisualpathway-revisedfor3rdedition.ppt
– Chapter4.2_Fromphysicalsymbolsystemstothelanguageofthought-revisedfor3rdedition.ppt
**## Chapter3.1_Cognitivesystemsasfunctionalsystems-revised.ppt**
[removed]
**## Chapter3.docx**
**Chapter 3 – is the mind contained in the brain?**
Please, read Chapter 3 and answer the following questions:
1.
**Do you think it’s possible to fully understand the mind without studying the brain? Why or why not?**
2.
**What’s your take on Mishkin and Ungerleider’s bottom-up approach to cognitive science? How does it compare to Marr’s top-down approach, and do you see any advantages to one over the other?**
3.
**Do you think neural network modeling is a useful tool in cognitive science? Why might it help us understand how the mind works?**
4.
**What do Logothetis’s experiments teach us about the neural activity behind fMRI signals? Why is this important for studying the brain?**
**Chapter 4 – Thought Experiments to Understand the mind**
**Please, read Chapter 4 and answer the following questions:**
1.
**Do you think that problem-solving lie at the heart of intelligence, as Newell and Simon suggest?**
2.
**Is intentional realism the correct approach to thinking about propositional attitudes? Can you think on some other options?**
3.
**Is Searle’s Russian (Chinese) room thought experiment a convincing argument for you? In general, what do you think of the use of thought experiments**?
**## Chapter3.5_Studyingmemoryforvisualevents-addedfor3rdedition.ppt**
Chapter 3.5:
Studying memory for visual events
Functional neuroimaging with fMRI
– Study the function of different brain areas non-invasively by measuring blood oxygen in the brain—measuring the difference between oxygenated and deoxygenated blood, i.e., the BOLD (blood oxygen level dependent) contrast
– Blocked design: control the signal by using an extended period of time for the subjects to perform a task
– Event-related design: allow for overlapping hemodynamic responses, e.g. Brewer et al. 1998
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Event-related fMRI
– Measure the BOLD signal associated with individual rapid occurring neural events, even though these events elicit overlapping hemodynamic responses
– Not presented in a set sequence, but can be randomized
– Allows researchers to observe the differences in neural activity associated with each event, to study the BOLD signal produced by short duration events, and to disentangle the separate components of complex tasks.
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Brewer et al. 1998
– Investigate whether any neural markers predict how specific visual experiences would be remembered by identifying the specific hemodynamic response generated by specific experiences
– The experiment:
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
subjects in an fMRI scanner asked to identify whether every of 96 color pictures was an indoor or outdoor scene
30 minutes break
Memory test of identifying whether they have seen the picture before & how confident they are
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Brewer et al. 1998
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
– Only two areas predict how well visual experiences will be remembered. The parahippocampal cortex (in both hemispheres) and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (only in the right hemisphere).
– The event-related design makes it possible to identify the hemodynamic response generated by each individual visual experience, in order to identify the areas that predict which experiences will be remembered
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
**## Chapter3.4_Mappingthestagesoflexicalprocessing-revisedfor3rdedition.ppt**
Chapter 3.4:
Mapping the stages of lexical processing
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Functional neuroimaging with PET
– Study the brain non-invasively
– Study the function of different brain areas by measuring blood flow in the brain—tracking the movement of radioactive water in the brain
– Need to design PET experiments to find ways to filter out potentially irrelevant, background activity, e.g. Petersen et al. 1988
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Petersen et al. 1988
– Test of parallel vs. serial processing of individual words (lexical access)
– Two models of individual word processing
Neurological (serial): Series of information processing “stations” (e.g., meaning sound visual appearance)
Cognitive (parallel): No single route. Different types of lexical processing take place at once.
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Petersen et al. 1988
Results seem to provide evidence for parallel processing
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Petersen et al. 1988
Method:
Series of progressively more complicated lexical tasks
Observe brain areas involved with each new task
Infer which brain areas are responsible for which type of lexical information processing
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Petersen et al. 1988
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
**## Chapter3.4_Mappingthestagesoflexicalprocessing-revisedfor3rdedition.ppt**
Chapter 3.4:
Mapping the stages of lexical processing
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Functional neuroimaging with PET
– Study the brain non-invasively
– Study the function of different brain areas by measuring blood flow in the brain—tracking the movement of radioactive water in the brain
– Need to design PET experiments to find ways to filter out potentially irrelevant, background activity, e.g. Petersen et al. 1988
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Petersen et al. 1988
– Test of parallel vs. serial processing of individual words (lexical access)
– Two models of individual word processing
Neurological (serial): Series of information processing “stations” (e.g., meaning sound visual appearance)
Cognitive (parallel): No single route. Different types of lexical processing take place at once.
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Petersen et al. 1988
Results seem to provide evidence for parallel processing
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Petersen et al. 1988
Method:
Series of progressively more complicated lexical tasks
Observe brain areas involved with each new task
Infer which brain areas are responsible for which type of lexical information processing
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Petersen et al. 1988
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
**## Chapter3.3_Extendingcomputationalmodelingtothebrain-revisedfor3rdedition.ppt**
Chapter 3.3:
Extending computational modeling to the brain
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Connectionist information-processing
Basic principles
• Parallel rather than serial processing as activation spreads through a network
• Knowledge distributed across a network (rather than stored in discrete symbol structures)
• Processing does not reply on explicit rules (other than those governing how activation flows through the network)
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Features of connectionist networks
• Exploit parallel processing
• Exhibit graceful degradation
• Intended as models of information-processing at the algorithmic level
• Capable of learning
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Parallel processing
The basic principle of connectionist networks is that many different units are active at a given time
– If we think of each unit as performing an information-processing step, this vastly increases the number of steps that can be performed in a short time-span.
– The information processing steps in a network don’t map straightforwardly onto the stages of a symbolic computation.
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Flow of activation
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Backpropagation
Information is transmitted forwards through the network
Error is propagated backwards through the network
The backpropagated error signal is used to adjust the weights to/from the hidden units
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Backprop
• The algorithm needs to find a way of calculating error in hidden units that do not have target activation levels
• It does this by calculating for each hidden unit its degree of “responsibility” for error at the output units
• This error value is used to adjust the weights of the hidden units
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Serial processing
• Processing in physical symbol systems is step-by-step
• Turing Machine can only read one cell at a time
• each line of machine table only applies one instruction
• Can the brain actually work this slowly?
• Distinction between computability in principle and practical computability
• Practical computability imposes real-time constraints
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Graceful degradation
• Brains respond in distinctive and flexible ways to damage and impairment
• characteristic partial breakdown patterns in response to local damage/lesions
• graceful degradation when cognitive abilities slowly deteriorate
• Symbolic computer programs either work or they don’t brittle
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Gorman & Sejnowski 1988
– Pattern recognition
Distinguish between the sonar echo produced by a rock and the sonar echo produced by a mine
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
– Pattern recognition
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Level of analysis
– Connectionist networks are models of information-processing at the algorithmic level
– Means that connectionists still have to answer questions of how networks are implemented in the brain
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
**Chapter4.3_TheRussianroomargument-revisedfor3rdedition.ppt**
This file is too large to display. [View in new window](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/chapter4-3-therussianroomargument-revisedfor3rdedition-ppt)
**Chapter3.2_Theanatomyofthebrainandprimaryvisualpathway-revisedfor3rdedition.ppt**
This file is too large to display. [View in new window](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/chapter3-2-theanatomyofthebrainandprimaryvisualpathway-revisedfor3rdedition-ppt)
**Chapter4.2_Fromphysicalsymbolsystemstothelanguageofthought-revisedfor3rdedition.ppt**
This file is too large to display. [View in new window](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/chapter4-2-fromphysicalsymbolsystemstothelanguageofthought-revisedfor3rdedition-ppt)
**Chapter4.2_Fromphysicalsymbolsystemstothelanguageofthought-revisedfor3rdedition.ppt**
This file is too large to display. [View in new window](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/chapter4-2-fromphysicalsymbolsystemstothelanguageofthought-revisedfor3rdedition-ppt)
**## Chapter3.1_Cognitivesystemsasfunctionalsystems-revised.ppt**
[removed]
**## Chapter3.docx**
**Chapter 3 – is the mind contained in the brain?**
Please, read Chapter 3 and answer the following questions:
1.
**Do you think it’s possible to fully understand the mind without studying the brain? Why or why not?**
2.
**What’s your take on Mishkin and Ungerleider’s bottom-up approach to cognitive science? How does it compare to Marr’s top-down approach, and do you see any advantages to one over the other?**
3.
**Do you think neural network modeling is a useful tool in cognitive science? Why might it help us understand how the mind works?**
4.
**What do Logothetis’s experiments teach us about the neural activity behind fMRI signals? Why is this important for studying the brain?**
**Chapter 4 – Thought Experiments to Understand the mind**
**Please, read Chapter 4 and answer the following questions:**
1.
**Do you think that problem-solving lie at the heart of intelligence, as Newell and Simon suggest?**
2.
**Is intentional realism the correct approach to thinking about propositional attitudes? Can you think on some other options?**
3.
**Is Searle’s Russian (Chinese) room thought experiment a convincing argument for you? In general, what do you think of the use of thought experiments**?
**## Chapter3.5_Studyingmemoryforvisualevents-addedfor3rdedition.ppt**
Chapter 3.5:
Studying memory for visual events
Functional neuroimaging with fMRI
– Study the function of different brain areas non-invasively by measuring blood oxygen in the brain—measuring the difference between oxygenated and deoxygenated blood, i.e., the BOLD (blood oxygen level dependent) contrast
– Blocked design: control the signal by using an extended period of time for the subjects to perform a task
– Event-related design: allow for overlapping hemodynamic responses, e.g. Brewer et al. 1998
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Event-related fMRI
– Measure the BOLD signal associated with individual rapid occurring neural events, even though these events elicit overlapping hemodynamic responses
– Not presented in a set sequence, but can be randomized
– Allows researchers to observe the differences in neural activity associated with each event, to study the BOLD signal produced by short duration events, and to disentangle the separate components of complex tasks.
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Brewer et al. 1998
– Investigate whether any neural markers predict how specific visual experiences would be remembered by identifying the specific hemodynamic response generated by specific experiences
– The experiment:
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
subjects in an fMRI scanner asked to identify whether every of 96 color pictures was an indoor or outdoor scene
30 minutes break
Memory test of identifying whether they have seen the picture before & how confident they are
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Brewer et al. 1998
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
– Only two areas predict how well visual experiences will be remembered. The parahippocampal cortex (in both hemispheres) and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (only in the right hemisphere).
– The event-related design makes it possible to identify the hemodynamic response generated by each individual visual experience, in order to identify the areas that predict which experiences will be remembered
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
**## Chapter3.4_Mappingthestagesoflexicalprocessing-revisedfor3rdedition.ppt**
Chapter 3.4:
Mapping the stages of lexical processing
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Functional neuroimaging with PET
– Study the brain non-invasively
– Study the function of different brain areas by measuring blood flow in the brain—tracking the movement of radioactive water in the brain
– Need to design PET experiments to find ways to filter out potentially irrelevant, background activity, e.g. Petersen et al. 1988
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Petersen et al. 1988
– Test of parallel vs. serial processing of individual words (lexical access)
– Two models of individual word processing
Neurological (serial): Series of information processing “stations” (e.g., meaning sound visual appearance)
Cognitive (parallel): No single route. Different types of lexical processing take place at once.
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Petersen et al. 1988
Results seem to provide evidence for parallel processing
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Petersen et al. 1988
Method:
Series of progressively more complicated lexical tasks
Observe brain areas involved with each new task
Infer which brain areas are responsible for which type of lexical information processing
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Petersen et al. 1988
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
**## Chapter3.4_Mappingthestagesoflexicalprocessing-revisedfor3rdedition.ppt**
Chapter 3.4:
Mapping the stages of lexical processing
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Functional neuroimaging with PET
– Study the brain non-invasively
– Study the function of different brain areas by measuring blood flow in the brain—tracking the movement of radioactive water in the brain
– Need to design PET experiments to find ways to filter out potentially irrelevant, background activity, e.g. Petersen et al. 1988
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Petersen et al. 1988
– Test of parallel vs. serial processing of individual words (lexical access)
– Two models of individual word processing
Neurological (serial): Series of information processing “stations” (e.g., meaning sound visual appearance)
Cognitive (parallel): No single route. Different types of lexical processing take place at once.
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Petersen et al. 1988
Results seem to provide evidence for parallel processing
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Petersen et al. 1988
Method:
Series of progressively more complicated lexical tasks
Observe brain areas involved with each new task
Infer which brain areas are responsible for which type of lexical information processing
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Petersen et al. 1988
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
**## Chapter3.3_Extendingcomputationalmodelingtothebrain-revisedfor3rdedition.ppt**
Chapter 3.3:
Extending computational modeling to the brain
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Connectionist information-processing
Basic principles
• Parallel rather than serial processing as activation spreads through a network
• Knowledge distributed across a network (rather than stored in discrete symbol structures)
• Processing does not reply on explicit rules (other than those governing how activation flows through the network)
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Features of connectionist networks
• Exploit parallel processing
• Exhibit graceful degradation
• Intended as models of information-processing at the algorithmic level
• Capable of learning
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Parallel processing
The basic principle of connectionist networks is that many different units are active at a given time
– If we think of each unit as performing an information-processing step, this vastly increases the number of steps that can be performed in a short time-span.
– The information processing steps in a network don’t map straightforwardly onto the stages of a symbolic computation.
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Flow of activation
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Backpropagation
Information is transmitted forwards through the network
Error is propagated backwards through the network
The backpropagated error signal is used to adjust the weights to/from the hidden units
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Backprop
• The algorithm needs to find a way of calculating error in hidden units that do not have target activation levels
• It does this by calculating for each hidden unit its degree of “responsibility” for error at the output units
• This error value is used to adjust the weights of the hidden units
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Serial processing
• Processing in physical symbol systems is step-by-step
• Turing Machine can only read one cell at a time
• each line of machine table only applies one instruction
• Can the brain actually work this slowly?
• Distinction between computability in principle and practical computability
• Practical computability imposes real-time constraints
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Graceful degradation
• Brains respond in distinctive and flexible ways to damage and impairment
• characteristic partial breakdown patterns in response to local damage/lesions
• graceful degradation when cognitive abilities slowly deteriorate
• Symbolic computer programs either work or they don’t brittle
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Gorman & Sejnowski 1988
– Pattern recognition
Distinguish between the sonar echo produced by a rock and the sonar echo produced by a mine
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
– Pattern recognition
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Level of analysis
– Connectionist networks are models of information-processing at the algorithmic level
– Means that connectionists still have to answer questions of how networks are implemented in the brain
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
**Chapter4.3_TheRussianroomargument-revisedfor3rdedition.ppt**
This file is too large to display. [View in new window](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/chapter4-3-therussianroomargument-revisedfor3rdedition-ppt)
**Chapter3.2_Theanatomyofthebrainandprimaryvisualpathway-revisedfor3rdedition.ppt**
This file is too large to display. [View in new window](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/chapter3-2-theanatomyofthebrainandprimaryvisualpathway-revisedfor3rdedition-ppt)
**Chapter4.2_Fromphysicalsymbolsystemstothelanguageofthought-revisedfor3rdedition.ppt**
This file is too large to display. [View in new window](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/chapter4-2-fromphysicalsymbolsystemstothelanguageofthought-revisedfor3rdedition-ppt)
**## Chapter3.1_Cognitivesystemsasfunctionalsystems-revised.ppt**
[removed]
**## Chapter3.docx**
**Chapter 3 – is the mind contained in the brain?**
Please, read Chapter 3 and answer the following questions:
1.
**Do you think it’s possible to fully understand the mind without studying the brain? Why or why not?**
2.
**What’s your take on Mishkin and Ungerleider’s bottom-up approach to cognitive science? How does it compare to Marr’s top-down approach, and do you see any advantages to one over the other?**
3.
**Do you think neural network modeling is a useful tool in cognitive science? Why might it help us understand how the mind works?**
4.
**What do Logothetis’s experiments teach us about the neural activity behind fMRI signals? Why is this important for studying the brain?**
**Chapter 4 – Thought Experiments to Understand the mind**
**Please, read Chapter 4 and answer the following questions:**
1.
**Do you think that problem-solving lie at the heart of intelligence, as Newell and Simon suggest?**
2.
**Is intentional realism the correct approach to thinking about propositional attitudes? Can you think on some other options?**
3.
**Is Searle’s Russian (Chinese) room thought experiment a convincing argument for you? In general, what do you think of the use of thought experiments**?
**## Chapter3.5_Studyingmemoryforvisualevents-addedfor3rdedition.ppt**
Chapter 3.5:
Studying memory for visual events
Functional neuroimaging with fMRI
– Study the function of different brain areas non-invasively by measuring blood oxygen in the brain—measuring the difference between oxygenated and deoxygenated blood, i.e., the BOLD (blood oxygen level dependent) contrast
– Blocked design: control the signal by using an extended period of time for the subjects to perform a task
– Event-related design: allow for overlapping hemodynamic responses, e.g. Brewer et al. 1998
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Event-related fMRI
– Measure the BOLD signal associated with individual rapid occurring neural events, even though these events elicit overlapping hemodynamic responses
– Not presented in a set sequence, but can be randomized
– Allows researchers to observe the differences in neural activity associated with each event, to study the BOLD signal produced by short duration events, and to disentangle the separate components of complex tasks.
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Brewer et al. 1998
– Investigate whether any neural markers predict how specific visual experiences would be remembered by identifying the specific hemodynamic response generated by specific experiences
– The experiment:
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
subjects in an fMRI scanner asked to identify whether every of 96 color pictures was an indoor or outdoor scene
30 minutes break
Memory test of identifying whether they have seen the picture before & how confident they are
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Brewer et al. 1998
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
– Only two areas predict how well visual experiences will be remembered. The parahippocampal cortex (in both hemispheres) and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (only in the right hemisphere).
– The event-related design makes it possible to identify the hemodynamic response generated by each individual visual experience, in order to identify the areas that predict which experiences will be remembered
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
**## Chapter3.4_Mappingthestagesoflexicalprocessing-revisedfor3rdedition.ppt**
Chapter 3.4:
Mapping the stages of lexical processing
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Functional neuroimaging with PET
– Study the brain non-invasively
– Study the function of different brain areas by measuring blood flow in the brain—tracking the movement of radioactive water in the brain
– Need to design PET experiments to find ways to filter out potentially irrelevant, background activity, e.g. Petersen et al. 1988
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Petersen et al. 1988
– Test of parallel vs. serial processing of individual words (lexical access)
– Two models of individual word processing
Neurological (serial): Series of information processing “stations” (e.g., meaning sound visual appearance)
Cognitive (parallel): No single route. Different types of lexical processing take place at once.
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Petersen et al. 1988
Results seem to provide evidence for parallel processing
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Petersen et al. 1988
Method:
Series of progressively more complicated lexical tasks
Observe brain areas involved with each new task
Infer which brain areas are responsible for which type of lexical information processing
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Petersen et al. 1988
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
**## Chapter3.4_Mappingthestagesoflexicalprocessing-revisedfor3rdedition.ppt**
Chapter 3.4:
Mapping the stages of lexical processing
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Functional neuroimaging with PET
– Study the brain non-invasively
– Study the function of different brain areas by measuring blood flow in the brain—tracking the movement of radioactive water in the brain
– Need to design PET experiments to find ways to filter out potentially irrelevant, background activity, e.g. Petersen et al. 1988
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Petersen et al. 1988
– Test of parallel vs. serial processing of individual words (lexical access)
– Two models of individual word processing
Neurological (serial): Series of information processing “stations” (e.g., meaning sound visual appearance)
Cognitive (parallel): No single route. Different types of lexical processing take place at once.
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Petersen et al. 1988
Results seem to provide evidence for parallel processing
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
*
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Petersen et al. 1988
Method:
Series of progressively more complicated lexical tasks
Observe brain areas involved with each new task
Infer which brain areas are responsible for which type of lexical information processing
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
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Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Petersen et al. 1988
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
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**## Chapter3.3_Extendingcomputationalmodelingtothebrain-revisedfor3rdedition.ppt**
Chapter 3.3:
Extending computational modeling to the brain
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Connectionist information-processing
Basic principles
• Parallel rather than serial processing as activation spreads through a network
• Knowledge distributed across a network (rather than stored in discrete symbol structures)
• Processing does not reply on explicit rules (other than those governing how activation flows through the network)
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
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Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Features of connectionist networks
• Exploit parallel processing
• Exhibit graceful degradation
• Intended as models of information-processing at the algorithmic level
• Capable of learning
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Parallel processing
The basic principle of connectionist networks is that many different units are active at a given time
– If we think of each unit as performing an information-processing step, this vastly increases the number of steps that can be performed in a short time-span.
– The information processing steps in a network don’t map straightforwardly onto the stages of a symbolic computation.
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Flow of activation
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
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Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Backpropagation
Information is transmitted forwards through the network
Error is propagated backwards through the network
The backpropagated error signal is used to adjust the weights to/from the hidden units
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
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Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Backprop
• The algorithm needs to find a way of calculating error in hidden units that do not have target activation levels
• It does this by calculating for each hidden unit its degree of “responsibility” for error at the output units
• This error value is used to adjust the weights of the hidden units
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
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Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Serial processing
• Processing in physical symbol systems is step-by-step
• Turing Machine can only read one cell at a time
• each line of machine table only applies one instruction
• Can the brain actually work this slowly?
• Distinction between computability in principle and practical computability
• Practical computability imposes real-time constraints
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Graceful degradation
• Brains respond in distinctive and flexible ways to damage and impairment
• characteristic partial breakdown patterns in response to local damage/lesions
• graceful degradation when cognitive abilities slowly deteriorate
• Symbolic computer programs either work or they don’t brittle
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Gorman & Sejnowski 1988
– Pattern recognition
Distinguish between the sonar echo produced by a rock and the sonar echo produced by a mine
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
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Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
– Pattern recognition
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
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Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
Level of analysis
– Connectionist networks are models of information-processing at the algorithmic level
– Means that connectionists still have to answer questions of how networks are implemented in the brain
Cognitive Science José Luis Bermúdez / Cambridge University Press 2020
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**Chapter4.3_TheRussianroomargument-revisedfor3rdedition.ppt**
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**Chapter3.2_Theanatomyofthebrainandprimaryvisualpathway-revisedfor3rdedition.ppt**
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**Chapter4.2_Fromphysicalsymbolsystemstothelanguageofthought-revisedfor3rdedition.ppt**
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