Assignment Prompt & Instructions
[>Economics homework help](https://www.sweetstudy.com/fields/business-finance-economics)
See attached
– 2 years ago
**files (2)**
– ## DBV.docx
– ## UnitVStudyGuide.pdf
**## DBV.docx**
Please note that there are three posts needed to successfully complete the discussion board assignment.
Identify a real-world example of price discrimination (preferably not one from the unit lesson), and explain which type of price discrimination it is. Next, using the good from your chosen price discrimination as an example, illustrate how the good fits the criteria necessary for successful price discrimination. Finally, discuss how the price discrimination example leads to an increase in total benefit to society. Have you ever paid a higher price for something than somebody else did? Ever pay a lower price? How did those experiences make you feel?
• Your initial post should be at least 300 words in length.
• Your initial post should include at least one APA-formatted scholarly, professional, or textbook reference with accompanying in-text citation to support any paraphrased, summarized, or quoted material.
Reply 1
**Rose Wiley**
Top of Form
Good Afternoon Professor and Class,
The airline industry demonstrates price discrimination because customers experience different ticket prices depending on their booking time frame, seat class choice and demographic profile. Third-degree price discrimination refers to the practice of dividing consumers into distinct groups and setting different prices for each group according to their price elasticity of demand (Varian, 2019). Business travelers face higher ticket prices when booking close to their departure date whereas leisure travelers receive lower prices when they book their travel far ahead. Students and senior citizens generally benefit from reduced ticket prices while first-class passengers incur higher fees.
Market Power: The seller needs to possess pricing power which indicates their market is not perfectly competitive. The airline market operates as an oligopoly where dominant carriers maintain control over most market share which enables them to establish strategic pricing models.
Market Segmentation: The seller needs to identify consumer groups that show different levels of payment willingness and keep them separate. Airlines segment their markets by differentiating business travelers from leisure travelers while offering discounts to targeted customer groups and implementing loyalty programs.
Limited Arbitrage: The ability to resell the service or product at a different price should not be possible for consumers. The non-transferable nature of airline tickets blocks arbitrage opportunities between high-paying customers and low-paying customers.
The airline industry uses price discrimination to enhance societal benefit through better resource allocation. This system enables airlines to fill more seats on their flights thereby decreasing empty trips and improving their operational performance. The airline industry offers more affordable options to leisure travelers which expands access to air travel while business travelers who need adaptable schedules pay premium prices. The system enables airlines to boost their revenue streams while serving a wider customer base which promotes economic growth and job creation within the airline sector (Varian, 2019).
My personal history includes instances where I paid both higher and lower rates for identical products. On one occasion my work trip required a last-minute flight which cost me much more than what my friend paid when booking weeks ahead. I have benefited from student discounts available at movie theaters and museums. The higher price was frustrating to pay but understanding its rationale made it clearer. Getting discounts felt like a special privilege because it helped me experience things without spending as much money.
**Reference** Varian, H. R. (2019).
_Intermediate microeconomics: A modern approach_ (9th ed.). W.W. Norton & Company.
Bottom of Form
Reply 2
**Dusty Matthews**
Top of Form
A common example of price discrimination is found in the movie theater industry. Movie theaters often charge different prices based on the time of day, the day of the week, and the age or status of the consumer. For example, matinee showings are typically cheaper than evening showings, and seniors or children often pay lower ticket prices than adults. This example represents third-degree price discrimination, which involves charging different prices to different groups based on observable characteristics such as age, time, or location (Bergemann et al., 2020). In this case, movie theaters differentiate prices based on customer age (children, adults, and seniors) and the time of the showing (matinees vs. prime evening times). Movie theaters usually have a degree of market power in local markets, especially in areas where there are few competing theaters, allowing them to set prices to maximize profits.
Different customer groups have different price sensitivities (Froeb, 2023). For example, seniors and children are more price-sensitive, so offering lower prices helps attract more of these groups. On the other hand, adults, especially in the evening, are less price-sensitive and willing to pay full price. Movie tickets are difficult to resell, especially because they often contain specific time and location information, preventing customers from reselling them at a profit. Movie theaters can easily segment customers based on observable characteristics (age, time of day, or loyalty cards) and apply different prices accordingly.
Price discrimination in the movie theater industry can increase total societal benefit by allowing for more efficient allocation of resources (Froeb, 2023). Offering cheaper tickets during off-peak hours (matinees) encourages more people to attend movies who might not otherwise be able to afford it, increasing overall demand and filling more seats. For theaters, this improves utilization rates and revenue. Additionally, lower prices for children or seniors make it more affordable for these groups to attend, increasing accessibility. Theaters can then reinvest that revenue into better services or more movie offerings, benefiting consumers and society at large (Froeb, 2023).
I’ve often paid a lower price for a movie ticket as a student or during matinee showings, which made me feel like I was getting a great deal. On the other hand, I’ve also paid full price for evening tickets when I didn’t plan ahead, which left me feeling a bit frustrated, especially knowing I could have saved money with a little more planning. These experiences highlight how pricing strategies can influence consumer behavior, encouraging people to make decisions based on timing or their specific demographic.
**References:**
Bergemann, D., Castro, F., & Weintraub, G. Y. (2020). Uniform Pricing Versus Third-Degree Price Discrimination.
_SSRN Electronic Journal_. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3540156
Froeb, L. (2023). Managerial Economics: A Problem Solving Approach (6th ed.). Cengage Learning US. https://online.vitalsource.com/books/9798214348278
**## UnitVStudyGuide.pdf**
ECO 6301, Economics for Managers 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit V
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
3. Analyze how price and output influence profit maximization under different market structures.
3.2 Explain how market power affects different types of pricing strategies.
4. Evaluate strategic pricing decisions.
4.1 Explain the conditions necessary to price discriminate.
Required Unit Resources
Chapter 12: More Realistic and Complex Pricing (ULO 3.2)
Chapter 13: Direct Price Discrimination (ULO 4.1)
Chapter 14: Indirect Price Discrimination (ULO 4.1)
Article: Public Subsidies and the Location and Pricing of Sports
This article discusses sports subsidies and pricing by analyzing how sports teams make decisions.
Unit Lesson
Lesson: Pricing and Greater Profit (ULOs 3.2, 4.1)
This lesson introduces you to the topics covered in this unit.
Firms have to answer two important questions: How much of their product should they produce, and how
much should they charge for their product? The two are certainly linked, but the pricing decision is generally
more complicated and drives the production decision. In basic economics, price is determined by the
intersection of supply and demand, with price (P) determined on output determined by marginal revenue (MR)
equals marginal cost (MC). A pricing strategy given earlier in the course is to set price such that the following
equation holds:
In practice, however, pricing strategies often deviate from this standard theory. Sometimes, for example, firms
have multiple products and this affects their pricing strategies. A firm might want to lower prices to sell more
of a product, but if the increase in sales in one product simply comes from “stealing” sales from another of
their products, then this is not really a net gain to the company. Also, owning more brands in a market gives
the firm more market power, which means raising prices is more profitable. A potential problem with raising
prices based on newfound market power is that it could attract the attention of the Antitrust Division of the
Justice Department.
The question is what to do strategically. A profit improving approach would be to raise the price on whichever
product has a lower profit margin. With the lower margin product now being relatively more expensive,
consumers will be more likely to purchase the higher profit margin.
The preceding strategy is based on the goods being substitutes. If a single producer yields two products that
are complements, then the profit maximizing action is to reduce the price on both products. By reducing the
UNIT V STUDY GUIDE
Pricing and Greater Profit
ECO 6301, Economics for Managers 2
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
price, the producer increases quantity demanded for one good, but as a result, increases demand for the
other good. Increasing sales of both products increases total profit.
Another pricing situation of interest is when producers have fixed capacity (think a cruise ship or concert). In
these cases, lowering prices to sell more product does not necessarily work because there might not be the
ability to provide more product. The result might be a situation where MR > MC, contrary to the standard profit
maximizing rule that MR = MC.
Promotional pricing is another instance where firms might deviate from the standard pricing rule. Advertising
can serve two broad goals: promote based on price or promote based on quality. The type of advertising will
determine the appropriate price strategy. If the advertising focuses on promoting products based on price,
demand will become more elastic, so lowering price makes sense. If the advertising focuses on promoting
product quality, the demand will become more inelastic so raising price makes sense. This second point is
important because price can often convey information about product quality. Promoting product quality and
lowering price can send conflicting messages to consumers.
Following in a similar vein of consumers inferring information about a product based on price, consumers
sometimes have price expectations. Managing price expectations is why businesses will sometimes set a
“suggested retail price” and then give the price of the product they are selling. The goal is to set a high price
in the customer’s mind so that they will be happy about the lower price. You might also see producers set a
low price but end up selling at a higher price or generating revenue some other way. Musicians might set low
concert prices but then hold back tickets to sell themselves on the secondary market. Sports teams might set
low prices to build up a fan base but then leverage that popularity to receive government subsidies for
stadiums. If you would like to learn more about sports subsidies and pricing, you can read the article “Public
Subsidies and the Location and Pricing of Sports” by Porter and Thomas.
Price Discrimination
Up until now, the assumption has been that firms can only charge one price to all of their customers, but
sometimes firms can charge different prices to different customers. This is called price discrimination.
Examples of price discrimination are matinee ticket prices for movies and discounts for seniors and military
members.
Several criteria must be met for firms to successfully price discriminate. There must be consumers with
different elasticities, that is different price sensitivity, and firms must be able to identify those different
customers (consumers with more inelastic demands pay higher prices). As part of that identification, they
must be able to implement different prices for those customers. Finally, firms must be able to prevent resale.
If consumers who can buy at low prices are able to turn around and sell to the consumers willing to pay a high
price, then firms lose their ability to sell to the high price consumers.
Price discrimination comes in three different categories. First-degree price discrimination, also called perfect
price discrimination, is when firms are able to charge each consumer their maximum willingness to pay. Car
sales that involve negotiation are an attempt at first-degree price discrimination. Data mining is a growing tool
to help firms toward first-degree price discrimination.
Second-degree price discrimination involves things like volume discounts or frequent customer cards. The
idea is not to charge different prices to every customer but to allow customers to self-select into different price
points for the producer to increase profit.
Third degree price discrimination alters prices based on demographics or other group characteristics. This is
the category of price discrimination with student or military discounts or movie theaters changing prices by
time of day.
Firms can use a variety of ways to identify customers based on their elasticity. Take airline tickets, for
example. There are certain days of the week to travel when ticket prices are lower, and people can often get
tickets at a lower price if they purchase their tickets a few weeks in advance. Why? Because airlines are
attempting to separate the elastic buyers (vacation travelers) from the inelastic buyers (business travelers).
Who likely plans a trip at least a few weeks in advance? Vacation travelers. Who is more likely to need a
ECO 6301, Economics for Managers 3
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
ticket on short notice? Business travelers. Who is unlikely to travel over a weekend? Business travelers. Who
can afford to pay more for their ticket? Business travelers.
Firms can also sell different versions of a product. Consumers with a high value for a product will likely need
all of the bells and whistles of the product, but consumers with a low value for a product might only need the
basic. That is why you might see a “pro” version of software or a “student” or “home” version. Sometimes,
businesses can separate high use customers, such as printers and ink or razors and razor blades. The cost to
buy the printer or the razor might be low, but to continue using the product requires ink or razor blades and
those are sold at a higher markup.
Firms can also use bundling to extract extra revenue. This strategy led to the value meals at McDonald’s or
computers with preloaded software. Bundling increases the value of the base product, allowing producers to
sell the product for a higher price. Customers might also be more inclined to pay a higher price for an all-
inclusive deal than to pay small amounts to continually add features or products. A similar approach is taken
with all-inclusive resorts and wrist bands at fairs. There is comfort in knowing that you can pay one price and
be done with paying.
Price discrimination sounds bad, largely because of the word discrimination, but it can be beneficial to society.
When people hear about price discrimination, they often think of charging higher prices to certain consumers,
but in many cases, it is about lowering prices (coupons, student discounts, matinees, etc.). Since some
consumers can pay a lower price, that brings them into the market and allows them to benefit from the
exchange. When looking at value to society, economists generally look at the total amount of exchange that
occurs. How much the consumer benefits and how much the producer benefits are certainly interesting, but
ultimately it is the amount of exchange that occurs. With price discrimination, the amount of exchange
certainly increases, though it does come with more benefit going to producers and less going to consumers.
Just because producers benefit at the expense of consumers does not mean consumers cannot benefit from
price discrimination. Take Uber’s surge pricing, for example. Surge pricing is a type of price discrimination.
People who are going to use an Uber on a busy night, such as Friday or Saturday night are going to pay more
for an Uber. However, by charging more, Uber also attracts more Uber drivers to work on those busy nights.
Without these additional drivers, Uber customers looking for an Uber on Friday or Saturday night would likely
have long waits for an Uber or may not be able to get an Uber at all.
Similarly, hotels charging higher prices during conferences, sporting events, and even natural disasters
discourages demand and encourages consumers to be efficient in their consumption. By encouraging efficient
consumption, there will be more rooms available for other people. Without the higher prices, more people
would be left out. Certainly, this all works to the benefit of the producers, but it also works to the benefit of the
consumer, and that is an important feature of price discrimination that should not be overlooked. It is another
benefit of a free market system. Even if producers are acting in their own best interest, the benefits of those
self-interested actions help other people.
Reference
Porter, P. K., & Thomas, C. R. (2010). Public subsidies and the location and pricing of sports. Southern
Economic Journal, 76(3), 693–710.
https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direc
t=true&db=bsu&AN=47776241&site=ehost-live&scope=site
**## UnitVStudyGuide.pdf**
ECO 6301, Economics for Managers 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit V
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
3. Analyze how price and output influence profit maximization under different market structures.
3.2 Explain how market power affects different types of pricing strategies.
4. Evaluate strategic pricing decisions.
4.1 Explain the conditions necessary to price discriminate.
Required Unit Resources
Chapter 12: More Realistic and Complex Pricing (ULO 3.2)
Chapter 13: Direct Price Discrimination (ULO 4.1)
Chapter 14: Indirect Price Discrimination (ULO 4.1)
Article: Public Subsidies and the Location and Pricing of Sports
This article discusses sports subsidies and pricing by analyzing how sports teams make decisions.
Unit Lesson
Lesson: Pricing and Greater Profit (ULOs 3.2, 4.1)
This lesson introduces you to the topics covered in this unit.
Firms have to answer two important questions: How much of their product should they produce, and how
much should they charge for their product? The two are certainly linked, but the pricing decision is generally
more complicated and drives the production decision. In basic economics, price is determined by the
intersection of supply and demand, with price (P) determined on output determined by marginal revenue (MR)
equals marginal cost (MC). A pricing strategy given earlier in the course is to set price such that the following
equation holds:
In practice, however, pricing strategies often deviate from this standard theory. Sometimes, for example, firms
have multiple products and this affects their pricing strategies. A firm might want to lower prices to sell more
of a product, but if the increase in sales in one product simply comes from “stealing” sales from another of
their products, then this is not really a net gain to the company. Also, owning more brands in a market gives
the firm more market power, which means raising prices is more profitable. A potential problem with raising
prices based on newfound market power is that it could attract the attention of the Antitrust Division of the
Justice Department.
The question is what to do strategically. A profit improving approach would be to raise the price on whichever
product has a lower profit margin. With the lower margin product now being relatively more expensive,
consumers will be more likely to purchase the higher profit margin.
The preceding strategy is based on the goods being substitutes. If a single producer yields two products that
are complements, then the profit maximizing action is to reduce the price on both products. By reducing the
UNIT V STUDY GUIDE
Pricing and Greater Profit
ECO 6301, Economics for Managers 2
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
price, the producer increases quantity demanded for one good, but as a result, increases demand for the
other good. Increasing sales of both products increases total profit.
Another pricing situation of interest is when producers have fixed capacity (think a cruise ship or concert). In
these cases, lowering prices to sell more product does not necessarily work because there might not be the
ability to provide more product. The result might be a situation where MR > MC, contrary to the standard profit
maximizing rule that MR = MC.
Promotional pricing is another instance where firms might deviate from the standard pricing rule. Advertising
can serve two broad goals: promote based on price or promote based on quality. The type of advertising will
determine the appropriate price strategy. If the advertising focuses on promoting products based on price,
demand will become more elastic, so lowering price makes sense. If the advertising focuses on promoting
product quality, the demand will become more inelastic so raising price makes sense. This second point is
important because price can often convey information about product quality. Promoting product quality and
lowering price can send conflicting messages to consumers.
Following in a similar vein of consumers inferring information about a product based on price, consumers
sometimes have price expectations. Managing price expectations is why businesses will sometimes set a
“suggested retail price” and then give the price of the product they are selling. The goal is to set a high price
in the customer’s mind so that they will be happy about the lower price. You might also see producers set a
low price but end up selling at a higher price or generating revenue some other way. Musicians might set low
concert prices but then hold back tickets to sell themselves on the secondary market. Sports teams might set
low prices to build up a fan base but then leverage that popularity to receive government subsidies for
stadiums. If you would like to learn more about sports subsidies and pricing, you can read the article “Public
Subsidies and the Location and Pricing of Sports” by Porter and Thomas.
Price Discrimination
Up until now, the assumption has been that firms can only charge one price to all of their customers, but
sometimes firms can charge different prices to different customers. This is called price discrimination.
Examples of price discrimination are matinee ticket prices for movies and discounts for seniors and military
members.
Several criteria must be met for firms to successfully price discriminate. There must be consumers with
different elasticities, that is different price sensitivity, and firms must be able to identify those different
customers (consumers with more inelastic demands pay higher prices). As part of that identification, they
must be able to implement different prices for those customers. Finally, firms must be able to prevent resale.
If consumers who can buy at low prices are able to turn around and sell to the consumers willing to pay a high
price, then firms lose their ability to sell to the high price consumers.
Price discrimination comes in three different categories. First-degree price discrimination, also called perfect
price discrimination, is when firms are able to charge each consumer their maximum willingness to pay. Car
sales that involve negotiation are an attempt at first-degree price discrimination. Data mining is a growing tool
to help firms toward first-degree price discrimination.
Second-degree price discrimination involves things like volume discounts or frequent customer cards. The
idea is not to charge different prices to every customer but to allow customers to self-select into different price
points for the producer to increase profit.
Third degree price discrimination alters prices based on demographics or other group characteristics. This is
the category of price discrimination with student or military discounts or movie theaters changing prices by
time of day.
Firms can use a variety of ways to identify customers based on their elasticity. Take airline tickets, for
example. There are certain days of the week to travel when ticket prices are lower, and people can often get
tickets at a lower price if they purchase their tickets a few weeks in advance. Why? Because airlines are
attempting to separate the elastic buyers (vacation travelers) from the inelastic buyers (business travelers).
Who likely plans a trip at least a few weeks in advance? Vacation travelers. Who is more likely to need a
ECO 6301, Economics for Managers 3
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
ticket on short notice? Business travelers. Who is unlikely to travel over a weekend? Business travelers. Who
can afford to pay more for their ticket? Business travelers.
Firms can also sell different versions of a product. Consumers with a high value for a product will likely need
all of the bells and whistles of the product, but consumers with a low value for a product might only need the
basic. That is why you might see a “pro” version of software or a “student” or “home” version. Sometimes,
businesses can separate high use customers, such as printers and ink or razors and razor blades. The cost to
buy the printer or the razor might be low, but to continue using the product requires ink or razor blades and
those are sold at a higher markup.
Firms can also use bundling to extract extra revenue. This strategy led to the value meals at McDonald’s or
computers with preloaded software. Bundling increases the value of the base product, allowing producers to
sell the product for a higher price. Customers might also be more inclined to pay a higher price for an all-
inclusive deal than to pay small amounts to continually add features or products. A similar approach is taken
with all-inclusive resorts and wrist bands at fairs. There is comfort in knowing that you can pay one price and
be done with paying.
Price discrimination sounds bad, largely because of the word discrimination, but it can be beneficial to society.
When people hear about price discrimination, they often think of charging higher prices to certain consumers,
but in many cases, it is about lowering prices (coupons, student discounts, matinees, etc.). Since some
consumers can pay a lower price, that brings them into the market and allows them to benefit from the
exchange. When looking at value to society, economists generally look at the total amount of exchange that
occurs. How much the consumer benefits and how much the producer benefits are certainly interesting, but
ultimately it is the amount of exchange that occurs. With price discrimination, the amount of exchange
certainly increases, though it does come with more benefit going to producers and less going to consumers.
Just because producers benefit at the expense of consumers does not mean consumers cannot benefit from
price discrimination. Take Uber’s surge pricing, for example. Surge pricing is a type of price discrimination.
People who are going to use an Uber on a busy night, such as Friday or Saturday night are going to pay more
for an Uber. However, by charging more, Uber also attracts more Uber drivers to work on those busy nights.
Without these additional drivers, Uber customers looking for an Uber on Friday or Saturday night would likely
have long waits for an Uber or may not be able to get an Uber at all.
Similarly, hotels charging higher prices during conferences, sporting events, and even natural disasters
discourages demand and encourages consumers to be efficient in their consumption. By encouraging efficient
consumption, there will be more rooms available for other people. Without the higher prices, more people
would be left out. Certainly, this all works to the benefit of the producers, but it also works to the benefit of the
consumer, and that is an important feature of price discrimination that should not be overlooked. It is another
benefit of a free market system. Even if producers are acting in their own best interest, the benefits of those
self-interested actions help other people.
Reference
Porter, P. K., & Thomas, C. R. (2010). Public subsidies and the location and pricing of sports. Southern
Economic Journal, 76(3), 693–710.
https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direc
t=true&db=bsu&AN=47776241&site=ehost-live&scope=site
**## DBV.docx**
Please note that there are three posts needed to successfully complete the discussion board assignment.
Identify a real-world example of price discrimination (preferably not one from the unit lesson), and explain which type of price discrimination it is. Next, using the good from your chosen price discrimination as an example, illustrate how the good fits the criteria necessary for successful price discrimination. Finally, discuss how the price discrimination example leads to an increase in total benefit to society. Have you ever paid a higher price for something than somebody else did? Ever pay a lower price? How did those experiences make you feel?
• Your initial post should be at least 300 words in length.
• Your initial post should include at least one APA-formatted scholarly, professional, or textbook reference with accompanying in-text citation to support any paraphrased, summarized, or quoted material.
Reply 1
**Rose Wiley**
Top of Form
Good Afternoon Professor and Class,
The airline industry demonstrates price discrimination because customers experience different ticket prices depending on their booking time frame, seat class choice and demographic profile. Third-degree price discrimination refers to the practice of dividing consumers into distinct groups and setting different prices for each group according to their price elasticity of demand (Varian, 2019). Business travelers face higher ticket prices when booking close to their departure date whereas leisure travelers receive lower prices when they book their travel far ahead. Students and senior citizens generally benefit from reduced ticket prices while first-class passengers incur higher fees.
Market Power: The seller needs to possess pricing power which indicates their market is not perfectly competitive. The airline market operates as an oligopoly where dominant carriers maintain control over most market share which enables them to establish strategic pricing models.
Market Segmentation: The seller needs to identify consumer groups that show different levels of payment willingness and keep them separate. Airlines segment their markets by differentiating business travelers from leisure travelers while offering discounts to targeted customer groups and implementing loyalty programs.
Limited Arbitrage: The ability to resell the service or product at a different price should not be possible for consumers. The non-transferable nature of airline tickets blocks arbitrage opportunities between high-paying customers and low-paying customers.
The airline industry uses price discrimination to enhance societal benefit through better resource allocation. This system enables airlines to fill more seats on their flights thereby decreasing empty trips and improving their operational performance. The airline industry offers more affordable options to leisure travelers which expands access to air travel while business travelers who need adaptable schedules pay premium prices. The system enables airlines to boost their revenue streams while serving a wider customer base which promotes economic growth and job creation within the airline sector (Varian, 2019).
My personal history includes instances where I paid both higher and lower rates for identical products. On one occasion my work trip required a last-minute flight which cost me much more than what my friend paid when booking weeks ahead. I have benefited from student discounts available at movie theaters and museums. The higher price was frustrating to pay but understanding its rationale made it clearer. Getting discounts felt like a special privilege because it helped me experience things without spending as much money.
**Reference** Varian, H. R. (2019).
_Intermediate microeconomics: A modern approach_ (9th ed.). W.W. Norton & Company.
Bottom of Form
Reply 2
**Dusty Matthews**
Top of Form
A common example of price discrimination is found in the movie theater industry. Movie theaters often charge different prices based on the time of day, the day of the week, and the age or status of the consumer. For example, matinee showings are typically cheaper than evening showings, and seniors or children often pay lower ticket prices than adults. This example represents third-degree price discrimination, which involves charging different prices to different groups based on observable characteristics such as age, time, or location (Bergemann et al., 2020). In this case, movie theaters differentiate prices based on customer age (children, adults, and seniors) and the time of the showing (matinees vs. prime evening times). Movie theaters usually have a degree of market power in local markets, especially in areas where there are few competing theaters, allowing them to set prices to maximize profits.
Different customer groups have different price sensitivities (Froeb, 2023). For example, seniors and children are more price-sensitive, so offering lower prices helps attract more of these groups. On the other hand, adults, especially in the evening, are less price-sensitive and willing to pay full price. Movie tickets are difficult to resell, especially because they often contain specific time and location information, preventing customers from reselling them at a profit. Movie theaters can easily segment customers based on observable characteristics (age, time of day, or loyalty cards) and apply different prices accordingly.
Price discrimination in the movie theater industry can increase total societal benefit by allowing for more efficient allocation of resources (Froeb, 2023). Offering cheaper tickets during off-peak hours (matinees) encourages more people to attend movies who might not otherwise be able to afford it, increasing overall demand and filling more seats. For theaters, this improves utilization rates and revenue. Additionally, lower prices for children or seniors make it more affordable for these groups to attend, increasing accessibility. Theaters can then reinvest that revenue into better services or more movie offerings, benefiting consumers and society at large (Froeb, 2023).
I’ve often paid a lower price for a movie ticket as a student or during matinee showings, which made me feel like I was getting a great deal. On the other hand, I’ve also paid full price for evening tickets when I didn’t plan ahead, which left me feeling a bit frustrated, especially knowing I could have saved money with a little more planning. These experiences highlight how pricing strategies can influence consumer behavior, encouraging people to make decisions based on timing or their specific demographic.
**References:**
Bergemann, D., Castro, F., & Weintraub, G. Y. (2020). Uniform Pricing Versus Third-Degree Price Discrimination.
_SSRN Electronic Journal_. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3540156
Froeb, L. (2023). Managerial Economics: A Problem Solving Approach (6th ed.). Cengage Learning US. https://online.vitalsource.com/books/9798214348278
**## UnitVStudyGuide.pdf**
ECO 6301, Economics for Managers 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit V
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
3. Analyze how price and output influence profit maximization under different market structures.
3.2 Explain how market power affects different types of pricing strategies.
4. Evaluate strategic pricing decisions.
4.1 Explain the conditions necessary to price discriminate.
Required Unit Resources
Chapter 12: More Realistic and Complex Pricing (ULO 3.2)
Chapter 13: Direct Price Discrimination (ULO 4.1)
Chapter 14: Indirect Price Discrimination (ULO 4.1)
Article: Public Subsidies and the Location and Pricing of Sports
This article discusses sports subsidies and pricing by analyzing how sports teams make decisions.
Unit Lesson
Lesson: Pricing and Greater Profit (ULOs 3.2, 4.1)
This lesson introduces you to the topics covered in this unit.
Firms have to answer two important questions: How much of their product should they produce, and how
much should they charge for their product? The two are certainly linked, but the pricing decision is generally
more complicated and drives the production decision. In basic economics, price is determined by the
intersection of supply and demand, with price (P) determined on output determined by marginal revenue (MR)
equals marginal cost (MC). A pricing strategy given earlier in the course is to set price such that the following
equation holds:
In practice, however, pricing strategies often deviate from this standard theory. Sometimes, for example, firms
have multiple products and this affects their pricing strategies. A firm might want to lower prices to sell more
of a product, but if the increase in sales in one product simply comes from “stealing” sales from another of
their products, then this is not really a net gain to the company. Also, owning more brands in a market gives
the firm more market power, which means raising prices is more profitable. A potential problem with raising
prices based on newfound market power is that it could attract the attention of the Antitrust Division of the
Justice Department.
The question is what to do strategically. A profit improving approach would be to raise the price on whichever
product has a lower profit margin. With the lower margin product now being relatively more expensive,
consumers will be more likely to purchase the higher profit margin.
The preceding strategy is based on the goods being substitutes. If a single producer yields two products that
are complements, then the profit maximizing action is to reduce the price on both products. By reducing the
UNIT V STUDY GUIDE
Pricing and Greater Profit
ECO 6301, Economics for Managers 2
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
price, the producer increases quantity demanded for one good, but as a result, increases demand for the
other good. Increasing sales of both products increases total profit.
Another pricing situation of interest is when producers have fixed capacity (think a cruise ship or concert). In
these cases, lowering prices to sell more product does not necessarily work because there might not be the
ability to provide more product. The result might be a situation where MR > MC, contrary to the standard profit
maximizing rule that MR = MC.
Promotional pricing is another instance where firms might deviate from the standard pricing rule. Advertising
can serve two broad goals: promote based on price or promote based on quality. The type of advertising will
determine the appropriate price strategy. If the advertising focuses on promoting products based on price,
demand will become more elastic, so lowering price makes sense. If the advertising focuses on promoting
product quality, the demand will become more inelastic so raising price makes sense. This second point is
important because price can often convey information about product quality. Promoting product quality and
lowering price can send conflicting messages to consumers.
Following in a similar vein of consumers inferring information about a product based on price, consumers
sometimes have price expectations. Managing price expectations is why businesses will sometimes set a
“suggested retail price” and then give the price of the product they are selling. The goal is to set a high price
in the customer’s mind so that they will be happy about the lower price. You might also see producers set a
low price but end up selling at a higher price or generating revenue some other way. Musicians might set low
concert prices but then hold back tickets to sell themselves on the secondary market. Sports teams might set
low prices to build up a fan base but then leverage that popularity to receive government subsidies for
stadiums. If you would like to learn more about sports subsidies and pricing, you can read the article “Public
Subsidies and the Location and Pricing of Sports” by Porter and Thomas.
Price Discrimination
Up until now, the assumption has been that firms can only charge one price to all of their customers, but
sometimes firms can charge different prices to different customers. This is called price discrimination.
Examples of price discrimination are matinee ticket prices for movies and discounts for seniors and military
members.
Several criteria must be met for firms to successfully price discriminate. There must be consumers with
different elasticities, that is different price sensitivity, and firms must be able to identify those different
customers (consumers with more inelastic demands pay higher prices). As part of that identification, they
must be able to implement different prices for those customers. Finally, firms must be able to prevent resale.
If consumers who can buy at low prices are able to turn around and sell to the consumers willing to pay a high
price, then firms lose their ability to sell to the high price consumers.
Price discrimination comes in three different categories. First-degree price discrimination, also called perfect
price discrimination, is when firms are able to charge each consumer their maximum willingness to pay. Car
sales that involve negotiation are an attempt at first-degree price discrimination. Data mining is a growing tool
to help firms toward first-degree price discrimination.
Second-degree price discrimination involves things like volume discounts or frequent customer cards. The
idea is not to charge different prices to every customer but to allow customers to self-select into different price
points for the producer to increase profit.
Third degree price discrimination alters prices based on demographics or other group characteristics. This is
the category of price discrimination with student or military discounts or movie theaters changing prices by
time of day.
Firms can use a variety of ways to identify customers based on their elasticity. Take airline tickets, for
example. There are certain days of the week to travel when ticket prices are lower, and people can often get
tickets at a lower price if they purchase their tickets a few weeks in advance. Why? Because airlines are
attempting to separate the elastic buyers (vacation travelers) from the inelastic buyers (business travelers).
Who likely plans a trip at least a few weeks in advance? Vacation travelers. Who is more likely to need a
ECO 6301, Economics for Managers 3
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
ticket on short notice? Business travelers. Who is unlikely to travel over a weekend? Business travelers. Who
can afford to pay more for their ticket? Business travelers.
Firms can also sell different versions of a product. Consumers with a high value for a product will likely need
all of the bells and whistles of the product, but consumers with a low value for a product might only need the
basic. That is why you might see a “pro” version of software or a “student” or “home” version. Sometimes,
businesses can separate high use customers, such as printers and ink or razors and razor blades. The cost to
buy the printer or the razor might be low, but to continue using the product requires ink or razor blades and
those are sold at a higher markup.
Firms can also use bundling to extract extra revenue. This strategy led to the value meals at McDonald’s or
computers with preloaded software. Bundling increases the value of the base product, allowing producers to
sell the product for a higher price. Customers might also be more inclined to pay a higher price for an all-
inclusive deal than to pay small amounts to continually add features or products. A similar approach is taken
with all-inclusive resorts and wrist bands at fairs. There is comfort in knowing that you can pay one price and
be done with paying.
Price discrimination sounds bad, largely because of the word discrimination, but it can be beneficial to society.
When people hear about price discrimination, they often think of charging higher prices to certain consumers,
but in many cases, it is about lowering prices (coupons, student discounts, matinees, etc.). Since some
consumers can pay a lower price, that brings them into the market and allows them to benefit from the
exchange. When looking at value to society, economists generally look at the total amount of exchange that
occurs. How much the consumer benefits and how much the producer benefits are certainly interesting, but
ultimately it is the amount of exchange that occurs. With price discrimination, the amount of exchange
certainly increases, though it does come with more benefit going to producers and less going to consumers.
Just because producers benefit at the expense of consumers does not mean consumers cannot benefit from
price discrimination. Take Uber’s surge pricing, for example. Surge pricing is a type of price discrimination.
People who are going to use an Uber on a busy night, such as Friday or Saturday night are going to pay more
for an Uber. However, by charging more, Uber also attracts more Uber drivers to work on those busy nights.
Without these additional drivers, Uber customers looking for an Uber on Friday or Saturday night would likely
have long waits for an Uber or may not be able to get an Uber at all.
Similarly, hotels charging higher prices during conferences, sporting events, and even natural disasters
discourages demand and encourages consumers to be efficient in their consumption. By encouraging efficient
consumption, there will be more rooms available for other people. Without the higher prices, more people
would be left out. Certainly, this all works to the benefit of the producers, but it also works to the benefit of the
consumer, and that is an important feature of price discrimination that should not be overlooked. It is another
benefit of a free market system. Even if producers are acting in their own best interest, the benefits of those
self-interested actions help other people.
Reference
Porter, P. K., & Thomas, C. R. (2010). Public subsidies and the location and pricing of sports. Southern
Economic Journal, 76(3), 693–710.
https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direc
t=true&db=bsu&AN=47776241&site=ehost-live&scope=site
**## DBV.docx**
Please note that there are three posts needed to successfully complete the discussion board assignment.
Identify a real-world example of price discrimination (preferably not one from the unit lesson), and explain which type of price discrimination it is. Next, using the good from your chosen price discrimination as an example, illustrate how the good fits the criteria necessary for successful price discrimination. Finally, discuss how the price discrimination example leads to an increase in total benefit to society. Have you ever paid a higher price for something than somebody else did? Ever pay a lower price? How did those experiences make you feel?
• Your initial post should be at least 300 words in length.
• Your initial post should include at least one APA-formatted scholarly, professional, or textbook reference with accompanying in-text citation to support any paraphrased, summarized, or quoted material.
Reply 1
**Rose Wiley**
Top of Form
Good Afternoon Professor and Class,
The airline industry demonstrates price discrimination because customers experience different ticket prices depending on their booking time frame, seat class choice and demographic profile. Third-degree price discrimination refers to the practice of dividing consumers into distinct groups and setting different prices for each group according to their price elasticity of demand (Varian, 2019). Business travelers face higher ticket prices when booking close to their departure date whereas leisure travelers receive lower prices when they book their travel far ahead. Students and senior citizens generally benefit from reduced ticket prices while first-class passengers incur higher fees.
Market Power: The seller needs to possess pricing power which indicates their market is not perfectly competitive. The airline market operates as an oligopoly where dominant carriers maintain control over most market share which enables them to establish strategic pricing models.
Market Segmentation: The seller needs to identify consumer groups that show different levels of payment willingness and keep them separate. Airlines segment their markets by differentiating business travelers from leisure travelers while offering discounts to targeted customer groups and implementing loyalty programs.
Limited Arbitrage: The ability to resell the service or product at a different price should not be possible for consumers. The non-transferable nature of airline tickets blocks arbitrage opportunities between high-paying customers and low-paying customers.
The airline industry uses price discrimination to enhance societal benefit through better resource allocation. This system enables airlines to fill more seats on their flights thereby decreasing empty trips and improving their operational performance. The airline industry offers more affordable options to leisure travelers which expands access to air travel while business travelers who need adaptable schedules pay premium prices. The system enables airlines to boost their revenue streams while serving a wider customer base which promotes economic growth and job creation within the airline sector (Varian, 2019).
My personal history includes instances where I paid both higher and lower rates for identical products. On one occasion my work trip required a last-minute flight which cost me much more than what my friend paid when booking weeks ahead. I have benefited from student discounts available at movie theaters and museums. The higher price was frustrating to pay but understanding its rationale made it clearer. Getting discounts felt like a special privilege because it helped me experience things without spending as much money.
**Reference** Varian, H. R. (2019).
_Intermediate microeconomics: A modern approach_ (9th ed.). W.W. Norton & Company.
Bottom of Form
Reply 2
**Dusty Matthews**
Top of Form
A common example of price discrimination is found in the movie theater industry. Movie theaters often charge different prices based on the time of day, the day of the week, and the age or status of the consumer. For example, matinee showings are typically cheaper than evening showings, and seniors or children often pay lower ticket prices than adults. This example represents third-degree price discrimination, which involves charging different prices to different groups based on observable characteristics such as age, time, or location (Bergemann et al., 2020). In this case, movie theaters differentiate prices based on customer age (children, adults, and seniors) and the time of the showing (matinees vs. prime evening times). Movie theaters usually have a degree of market power in local markets, especially in areas where there are few competing theaters, allowing them to set prices to maximize profits.
Different customer groups have different price sensitivities (Froeb, 2023). For example, seniors and children are more price-sensitive, so offering lower prices helps attract more of these groups. On the other hand, adults, especially in the evening, are less price-sensitive and willing to pay full price. Movie tickets are difficult to resell, especially because they often contain specific time and location information, preventing customers from reselling them at a profit. Movie theaters can easily segment customers based on observable characteristics (age, time of day, or loyalty cards) and apply different prices accordingly.
Price discrimination in the movie theater industry can increase total societal benefit by allowing for more efficient allocation of resources (Froeb, 2023). Offering cheaper tickets during off-peak hours (matinees) encourages more people to attend movies who might not otherwise be able to afford it, increasing overall demand and filling more seats. For theaters, this improves utilization rates and revenue. Additionally, lower prices for children or seniors make it more affordable for these groups to attend, increasing accessibility. Theaters can then reinvest that revenue into better services or more movie offerings, benefiting consumers and society at large (Froeb, 2023).
I’ve often paid a lower price for a movie ticket as a student or during matinee showings, which made me feel like I was getting a great deal. On the other hand, I’ve also paid full price for evening tickets when I didn’t plan ahead, which left me feeling a bit frustrated, especially knowing I could have saved money with a little more planning. These experiences highlight how pricing strategies can influence consumer behavior, encouraging people to make decisions based on timing or their specific demographic.
**References:**
Bergemann, D., Castro, F., & Weintraub, G. Y. (2020). Uniform Pricing Versus Third-Degree Price Discrimination.
_SSRN Electronic Journal_. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3540156
Froeb, L. (2023). Managerial Economics: A Problem Solving Approach (6th ed.). Cengage Learning US. https://online.vitalsource.com/books/9798214348278
**## UnitVStudyGuide.pdf**
ECO 6301, Economics for Managers 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit V
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
3. Analyze how price and output influence profit maximization under different market structures.
3.2 Explain how market power affects different types of pricing strategies.
4. Evaluate strategic pricing decisions.
4.1 Explain the conditions necessary to price discriminate.
Required Unit Resources
Chapter 12: More Realistic and Complex Pricing (ULO 3.2)
Chapter 13: Direct Price Discrimination (ULO 4.1)
Chapter 14: Indirect Price Discrimination (ULO 4.1)
Article: Public Subsidies and the Location and Pricing of Sports
This article discusses sports subsidies and pricing by analyzing how sports teams make decisions.
Unit Lesson
Lesson: Pricing and Greater Profit (ULOs 3.2, 4.1)
This lesson introduces you to the topics covered in this unit.
Firms have to answer two important questions: How much of their product should they produce, and how
much should they charge for their product? The two are certainly linked, but the pricing decision is generally
more complicated and drives the production decision. In basic economics, price is determined by the
intersection of supply and demand, with price (P) determined on output determined by marginal revenue (MR)
equals marginal cost (MC). A pricing strategy given earlier in the course is to set price such that the following
equation holds:
In practice, however, pricing strategies often deviate from this standard theory. Sometimes, for example, firms
have multiple products and this affects their pricing strategies. A firm might want to lower prices to sell more
of a product, but if the increase in sales in one product simply comes from “stealing” sales from another of
their products, then this is not really a net gain to the company. Also, owning more brands in a market gives
the firm more market power, which means raising prices is more profitable. A potential problem with raising
prices based on newfound market power is that it could attract the attention of the Antitrust Division of the
Justice Department.
The question is what to do strategically. A profit improving approach would be to raise the price on whichever
product has a lower profit margin. With the lower margin product now being relatively more expensive,
consumers will be more likely to purchase the higher profit margin.
The preceding strategy is based on the goods being substitutes. If a single producer yields two products that
are complements, then the profit maximizing action is to reduce the price on both products. By reducing the
UNIT V STUDY GUIDE
Pricing and Greater Profit
ECO 6301, Economics for Managers 2
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
price, the producer increases quantity demanded for one good, but as a result, increases demand for the
other good. Increasing sales of both products increases total profit.
Another pricing situation of interest is when producers have fixed capacity (think a cruise ship or concert). In
these cases, lowering prices to sell more product does not necessarily work because there might not be the
ability to provide more product. The result might be a situation where MR > MC, contrary to the standard profit
maximizing rule that MR = MC.
Promotional pricing is another instance where firms might deviate from the standard pricing rule. Advertising
can serve two broad goals: promote based on price or promote based on quality. The type of advertising will
determine the appropriate price strategy. If the advertising focuses on promoting products based on price,
demand will become more elastic, so lowering price makes sense. If the advertising focuses on promoting
product quality, the demand will become more inelastic so raising price makes sense. This second point is
important because price can often convey information about product quality. Promoting product quality and
lowering price can send conflicting messages to consumers.
Following in a similar vein of consumers inferring information about a product based on price, consumers
sometimes have price expectations. Managing price expectations is why businesses will sometimes set a
“suggested retail price” and then give the price of the product they are selling. The goal is to set a high price
in the customer’s mind so that they will be happy about the lower price. You might also see producers set a
low price but end up selling at a higher price or generating revenue some other way. Musicians might set low
concert prices but then hold back tickets to sell themselves on the secondary market. Sports teams might set
low prices to build up a fan base but then leverage that popularity to receive government subsidies for
stadiums. If you would like to learn more about sports subsidies and pricing, you can read the article “Public
Subsidies and the Location and Pricing of Sports” by Porter and Thomas.
Price Discrimination
Up until now, the assumption has been that firms can only charge one price to all of their customers, but
sometimes firms can charge different prices to different customers. This is called price discrimination.
Examples of price discrimination are matinee ticket prices for movies and discounts for seniors and military
members.
Several criteria must be met for firms to successfully price discriminate. There must be consumers with
different elasticities, that is different price sensitivity, and firms must be able to identify those different
customers (consumers with more inelastic demands pay higher prices). As part of that identification, they
must be able to implement different prices for those customers. Finally, firms must be able to prevent resale.
If consumers who can buy at low prices are able to turn around and sell to the consumers willing to pay a high
price, then firms lose their ability to sell to the high price consumers.
Price discrimination comes in three different categories. First-degree price discrimination, also called perfect
price discrimination, is when firms are able to charge each consumer their maximum willingness to pay. Car
sales that involve negotiation are an attempt at first-degree price discrimination. Data mining is a growing tool
to help firms toward first-degree price discrimination.
Second-degree price discrimination involves things like volume discounts or frequent customer cards. The
idea is not to charge different prices to every customer but to allow customers to self-select into different price
points for the producer to increase profit.
Third degree price discrimination alters prices based on demographics or other group characteristics. This is
the category of price discrimination with student or military discounts or movie theaters changing prices by
time of day.
Firms can use a variety of ways to identify customers based on their elasticity. Take airline tickets, for
example. There are certain days of the week to travel when ticket prices are lower, and people can often get
tickets at a lower price if they purchase their tickets a few weeks in advance. Why? Because airlines are
attempting to separate the elastic buyers (vacation travelers) from the inelastic buyers (business travelers).
Who likely plans a trip at least a few weeks in advance? Vacation travelers. Who is more likely to need a
ECO 6301, Economics for Managers 3
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
ticket on short notice? Business travelers. Who is unlikely to travel over a weekend? Business travelers. Who
can afford to pay more for their ticket? Business travelers.
Firms can also sell different versions of a product. Consumers with a high value for a product will likely need
all of the bells and whistles of the product, but consumers with a low value for a product might only need the
basic. That is why you might see a “pro” version of software or a “student” or “home” version. Sometimes,
businesses can separate high use customers, such as printers and ink or razors and razor blades. The cost to
buy the printer or the razor might be low, but to continue using the product requires ink or razor blades and
those are sold at a higher markup.
Firms can also use bundling to extract extra revenue. This strategy led to the value meals at McDonald’s or
computers with preloaded software. Bundling increases the value of the base product, allowing producers to
sell the product for a higher price. Customers might also be more inclined to pay a higher price for an all-
inclusive deal than to pay small amounts to continually add features or products. A similar approach is taken
with all-inclusive resorts and wrist bands at fairs. There is comfort in knowing that you can pay one price and
be done with paying.
Price discrimination sounds bad, largely because of the word discrimination, but it can be beneficial to society.
When people hear about price discrimination, they often think of charging higher prices to certain consumers,
but in many cases, it is about lowering prices (coupons, student discounts, matinees, etc.). Since some
consumers can pay a lower price, that brings them into the market and allows them to benefit from the
exchange. When looking at value to society, economists generally look at the total amount of exchange that
occurs. How much the consumer benefits and how much the producer benefits are certainly interesting, but
ultimately it is the amount of exchange that occurs. With price discrimination, the amount of exchange
certainly increases, though it does come with more benefit going to producers and less going to consumers.
Just because producers benefit at the expense of consumers does not mean consumers cannot benefit from
price discrimination. Take Uber’s surge pricing, for example. Surge pricing is a type of price discrimination.
People who are going to use an Uber on a busy night, such as Friday or Saturday night are going to pay more
for an Uber. However, by charging more, Uber also attracts more Uber drivers to work on those busy nights.
Without these additional drivers, Uber customers looking for an Uber on Friday or Saturday night would likely
have long waits for an Uber or may not be able to get an Uber at all.
Similarly, hotels charging higher prices during conferences, sporting events, and even natural disasters
discourages demand and encourages consumers to be efficient in their consumption. By encouraging efficient
consumption, there will be more rooms available for other people. Without the higher prices, more people
would be left out. Certainly, this all works to the benefit of the producers, but it also works to the benefit of the
consumer, and that is an important feature of price discrimination that should not be overlooked. It is another
benefit of a free market system. Even if producers are acting in their own best interest, the benefits of those
self-interested actions help other people.
Reference
Porter, P. K., & Thomas, C. R. (2010). Public subsidies and the location and pricing of sports. Southern
Economic Journal, 76(3), 693–710.
https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direc
t=true&db=bsu&AN=47776241&site=ehost-live&scope=site