Assignment Prompt & Instructions
– ## 9780323871730_Chapter_010.mp3
– ## Chapter_010.rtf
– 20251012_193529.jpg
**## 9780323871730_Chapter_010.mp3**
Blues
645.624
**## Chapter_010.rtf**
10-4
Audio Chapter Summaries
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
**Patton: Structure & Function of the Body, 17th Edition**
**Chapter 10: Senses**
****Audio Chapter Summaries****
****Welcome to the audio review for Chapter 10: Senses.****
**Senses are classified as general or special.**
**General senses are detected by sensory organs that exist as individual cells or receptor units and are widely distributed throughout the body.**
**Special senses are detected by large and complex organs, or localized grouping of sensory receptors.**
**All sense organs have common functional characteristics:**
**All are able to detect a particular stimulus.**
**A stimulus results in generation of a nerve impulse.**
**A nerve impulse is processed and perceived as a sensation in the central nervous system.**
**Sensory receptor types are classified by the presence of a capsule and by the type of stimuli needed to activate the receptors.**
**Sensory receptors may be encapsulated or unencapsulated. Unencapsulated receptors are also called “free” neuron endings or “naked.”**
**If light is the stimulus for a receptor, it is a photoreceptor.**
**Chemoreceptors are stimulated by chemicals.**
**Pain receptors are stimulated by injury.**
**Changes in temperature stimulate thermoreceptors.**
**Movements or shape changes stimulate mechanoreceptors.**
**The distribution of general senses is widespread, including in deep organs of the body; single-cell receptors are common. The difference in what kind of stimuli is detected is called the**
****mode** of the sensation.**
**Examples of general sensory receptors and their modes include:**
**Free nerve endings that detect pain, temperature, and crude touch;**
**Tactile corpuscles (also known as Meissner corpuscles) that detect fine touch and vibration;**
**Bulbous corpuscles (also called Ruffini corpuscles) that detect touch and pressure;**
**Lamellar corpuscles (also known as Pacini corpuscles) that detect pressure and vibration;**
**Bulboid corpuscles (also called Krause end bulbs) that detect touch; and**
**Tendon organs (also called Golgi tendon organs) and muscle spindles that register proprioception.**
**Next, we’ll review the special senses: vision, hearing and equilibrium, taste, and smell.**
**The eye is the organ of vision. Its complex structure can be best understood by dividing it into three layers: the fibrous, vascular, and inner layers.**
**The fibrous layer is a tough outer coat that includes the sclera or “white” of the eye, and the cornea, the transparent part over the iris.**
**A mucous membrane known as the**
**conjunctiva lines the eyelids and covers the fibrous layer in front. The conjunctiva is kept moist by tears secreted by the lacrimal gland.**
**The vascular layer has a dense network of blood vessels.**
**It includes the choroid, the pigmented, melanin-rich layer that prevents scattering of light and the iris, the colored part of the eye. The pupil is the hole in the center of the iris; contraction of smooth muscle dilates or constricts the pupil.**
**The vascular layer includes the lens as well, the transparent body behind the pupil that focuses or refracts light rays on the retina.**
**Near the front of the vascular layer is the ciliary muscle—just outside the edge of the iris; its contraction affects the shape of the transparent lens just behind the iris, thus altering focus for near objects.**
**The**
****retina** makes up most of the**
**_inner layer_ of the eyeball.**
**It contains microscopic photoreceptor cells to detect light.**
**Most of these receptor cells are called**
**_rods_ and**
**_cones_ because of their shapes.**
****Rods** are the receptors for night and peripheral vision and**
****cones** are the receptors for daytime and color vision.**
**Ganglion cells are the receptors for changing light patterns of days, months, and seasons.**
**Eye fluids include the aqueous humor, located in the anterior chamber in front of the lens; and the vitreous humor in the posterior chamber behind the lens.**
**Be sure to review the visual pathway as well as the structures of vision.**
**Vision detects the intensity or brightness and wavelength or color of light, as well as images and motion. Light must be focused by the eye to form a detectable image.**
**Impulses travel from the rods and cones in the innermost layer of the retina through the bipolar and ganglionic layers of the retina.**
**Nerve impulse leaves the eye through the optic nerve; the point of exit is free of receptors and is therefore called a**
**_blind spot_ known as the optic disk**
**_._**
**__Visual interpretation occurs in the visual cortex of the cerebrum.__**
**_Next, we will review the special senses of hearing and equilibrium._**
**_The ear functions in hearing and equilibrium using receptors called_**
**__mechanoreceptors.__**
**_First be sure you understand the ear’s anatomy. It is divided into the external, middle, and inner ear._**
**_The external ear includes the auricle or pinna, and the external acoustic canal. This curving canal is 2.5 centimeters (or about 1 inch) in length and ends at the tympanic membrane. It contains ceruminous glands._**
**_The middle ear houses the ear ossicles: the malleus, incus, and stapes; and it ends in the oval window. Inflammation of the middle ear is called_**
**__otitis media.__**
**_The auditory tube (also called the eustachian tube) connects the middle ear to the throat._**
**_The inner ear consists of an odd-shaped bony space called the_**
**_**bony labyrinth**. Filled with a watery fluid called_**
**_**perilymph**, the bony labyrinth is divided into the_**
**_**vestibule, semicircular canals,** and the_**
**_**cochlea**. The vestibule is adjacent to the oval window between the semicircular canals and the cochlea._**
**_The membranous labyrinth is a balloonlike membranous sac suspended in the perilymph; it follows the shape of the bony labyrinth and is filled with endolymph._**
**_Now we’ll review the functions of hearing and equilibrium._**
**_Hearing detects changes in intensity and frequency of sound waves, which are pressure waves. Sound waves, funneled by the auricle into the external acoustic canal, vibrate the tympanic membrane. Vibrations of the tympanic membrane are amplified by auditory ossicles and transmitted to the oval window. Vibrations of the oval window trigger vibrations of perilymph, which in turn vibrates the endolymph. Sensory hair cells on the spiral organ (organ of Corti) generate nerve impulses when bent by the movement of surrounding endolymph set in motion by sound waves; they can become damaged by chronic exposure to loud noise._**
**_Equilibrium describes two types of balance: static and dynamic._**
**_Static equilibrium is the sense of gravity._**
**_It is detected by ciliated hair cells (mechanoreceptors) of the two maculae in the vestibule. When the head tilts, gravity pulls the heavy gel of each macula, bending the sensory cilia and producing a nerve signal._**
**_Dynamic equilibrium is the sense of speed and direction of movement._**
**_It is detected by ciliated hair cells (mechanoreceptors) of the crista ampullaris in the ampulla of each semicircular canal._**
**_When speed or direction of movement of the head changes, the flow of endolymph in the semicircular canals is altered, which causes changes in the bending of sensory cilia, producing a nerve signal._**
**_The vestibular nerve carries nerve impulses from the equilibrium receptors of the vestibule and joins with the cochlear nerve to form the vestibulocochlear nerve, also known as cranial nerve VIII._**
**_Next, we’ll review the sense of taste, which is also called gustation._**
**_Receptors for taste are chemoreceptors called gustatory cells, located in_**
**__taste buds.__**
**_Cranial nerves VII and IX carry gustatory impulses._**
**_Primary taste modes include_**
**_Sweet, which detects sugars;_**
**_Sour, which detects acids;_**
**_Bitter, which detects alkaline solutions;_**
**_Salty, which detects sodium ions;_**
**_Umami or savory, which detects glutamate (an amino acid)._**
**_Currently, other sensations are being studied, including_**
**__metallic_ (to detect metal ions from some foods and blood,_**
**__kokumi_(to detect glutamyl peptides from fermentation or curing) and_**
**__chalky_ (to detect calcium salts in spinach, cheeses, and wines._**
**_Smell is the last special sense to review._**
**_Olfactory receptors are sensory fibers of the olfactory nerve, cranial nerve I. They lie in the olfactory mucosa of the nasal cavity._**
**_These receptors are extremely sensitive, but easily adapt and become fatigued._**
**_Odor-causing chemicals initiate a nerve signal that is interpreted as a specific odor by the brain. Note that olfaction has a strong relationship with emotions and memory._**
**_It is important to realize that all senses are processed and finally perceived in the brain, not in the receptors._**
**_Sensory information is combined to form an overall sensory perception of our world._**
**_For example, flavor is a combination of gustatory and olfactory senses; it can even be affected by other senses, such as touch, pain, and temperature. Nasal congestion interferes with stimulation of olfactory receptors and thereby dulls flavor sensations._**
**_Another example relates to posture and balance: the senses of equilibrium with vision and proprioception combine to help us maintain a safe body position._**
**_Note that some sensory information is processed subconsciously, and like many other functions, our senses may decline as we age._**
**_This concludes the audio review of chapter 10._**
**20251012_193529.jpg**
This file is too large to display. [View in new window](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/20251012-193529-jpg)
**20251012_193529.jpg**
This file is too large to display. [View in new window](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/20251012-193529-jpg)
**## 9780323871730_Chapter_010.mp3**
Blues
645.624
**## Chapter_010.rtf**
10-4
Audio Chapter Summaries
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
**Patton: Structure & Function of the Body, 17th Edition**
**Chapter 10: Senses**
****Audio Chapter Summaries****
****Welcome to the audio review for Chapter 10: Senses.****
**Senses are classified as general or special.**
**General senses are detected by sensory organs that exist as individual cells or receptor units and are widely distributed throughout the body.**
**Special senses are detected by large and complex organs, or localized grouping of sensory receptors.**
**All sense organs have common functional characteristics:**
**All are able to detect a particular stimulus.**
**A stimulus results in generation of a nerve impulse.**
**A nerve impulse is processed and perceived as a sensation in the central nervous system.**
**Sensory receptor types are classified by the presence of a capsule and by the type of stimuli needed to activate the receptors.**
**Sensory receptors may be encapsulated or unencapsulated. Unencapsulated receptors are also called “free” neuron endings or “naked.”**
**If light is the stimulus for a receptor, it is a photoreceptor.**
**Chemoreceptors are stimulated by chemicals.**
**Pain receptors are stimulated by injury.**
**Changes in temperature stimulate thermoreceptors.**
**Movements or shape changes stimulate mechanoreceptors.**
**The distribution of general senses is widespread, including in deep organs of the body; single-cell receptors are common. The difference in what kind of stimuli is detected is called the**
****mode** of the sensation.**
**Examples of general sensory receptors and their modes include:**
**Free nerve endings that detect pain, temperature, and crude touch;**
**Tactile corpuscles (also known as Meissner corpuscles) that detect fine touch and vibration;**
**Bulbous corpuscles (also called Ruffini corpuscles) that detect touch and pressure;**
**Lamellar corpuscles (also known as Pacini corpuscles) that detect pressure and vibration;**
**Bulboid corpuscles (also called Krause end bulbs) that detect touch; and**
**Tendon organs (also called Golgi tendon organs) and muscle spindles that register proprioception.**
**Next, we’ll review the special senses: vision, hearing and equilibrium, taste, and smell.**
**The eye is the organ of vision. Its complex structure can be best understood by dividing it into three layers: the fibrous, vascular, and inner layers.**
**The fibrous layer is a tough outer coat that includes the sclera or “white” of the eye, and the cornea, the transparent part over the iris.**
**A mucous membrane known as the**
**conjunctiva lines the eyelids and covers the fibrous layer in front. The conjunctiva is kept moist by tears secreted by the lacrimal gland.**
**The vascular layer has a dense network of blood vessels.**
**It includes the choroid, the pigmented, melanin-rich layer that prevents scattering of light and the iris, the colored part of the eye. The pupil is the hole in the center of the iris; contraction of smooth muscle dilates or constricts the pupil.**
**The vascular layer includes the lens as well, the transparent body behind the pupil that focuses or refracts light rays on the retina.**
**Near the front of the vascular layer is the ciliary muscle—just outside the edge of the iris; its contraction affects the shape of the transparent lens just behind the iris, thus altering focus for near objects.**
**The**
****retina** makes up most of the**
**_inner layer_ of the eyeball.**
**It contains microscopic photoreceptor cells to detect light.**
**Most of these receptor cells are called**
**_rods_ and**
**_cones_ because of their shapes.**
****Rods** are the receptors for night and peripheral vision and**
****cones** are the receptors for daytime and color vision.**
**Ganglion cells are the receptors for changing light patterns of days, months, and seasons.**
**Eye fluids include the aqueous humor, located in the anterior chamber in front of the lens; and the vitreous humor in the posterior chamber behind the lens.**
**Be sure to review the visual pathway as well as the structures of vision.**
**Vision detects the intensity or brightness and wavelength or color of light, as well as images and motion. Light must be focused by the eye to form a detectable image.**
**Impulses travel from the rods and cones in the innermost layer of the retina through the bipolar and ganglionic layers of the retina.**
**Nerve impulse leaves the eye through the optic nerve; the point of exit is free of receptors and is therefore called a**
**_blind spot_ known as the optic disk**
**_._**
**__Visual interpretation occurs in the visual cortex of the cerebrum.__**
**_Next, we will review the special senses of hearing and equilibrium._**
**_The ear functions in hearing and equilibrium using receptors called_**
**__mechanoreceptors.__**
**_First be sure you understand the ear’s anatomy. It is divided into the external, middle, and inner ear._**
**_The external ear includes the auricle or pinna, and the external acoustic canal. This curving canal is 2.5 centimeters (or about 1 inch) in length and ends at the tympanic membrane. It contains ceruminous glands._**
**_The middle ear houses the ear ossicles: the malleus, incus, and stapes; and it ends in the oval window. Inflammation of the middle ear is called_**
**__otitis media.__**
**_The auditory tube (also called the eustachian tube) connects the middle ear to the throat._**
**_The inner ear consists of an odd-shaped bony space called the_**
**_**bony labyrinth**. Filled with a watery fluid called_**
**_**perilymph**, the bony labyrinth is divided into the_**
**_**vestibule, semicircular canals,** and the_**
**_**cochlea**. The vestibule is adjacent to the oval window between the semicircular canals and the cochlea._**
**_The membranous labyrinth is a balloonlike membranous sac suspended in the perilymph; it follows the shape of the bony labyrinth and is filled with endolymph._**
**_Now we’ll review the functions of hearing and equilibrium._**
**_Hearing detects changes in intensity and frequency of sound waves, which are pressure waves. Sound waves, funneled by the auricle into the external acoustic canal, vibrate the tympanic membrane. Vibrations of the tympanic membrane are amplified by auditory ossicles and transmitted to the oval window. Vibrations of the oval window trigger vibrations of perilymph, which in turn vibrates the endolymph. Sensory hair cells on the spiral organ (organ of Corti) generate nerve impulses when bent by the movement of surrounding endolymph set in motion by sound waves; they can become damaged by chronic exposure to loud noise._**
**_Equilibrium describes two types of balance: static and dynamic._**
**_Static equilibrium is the sense of gravity._**
**_It is detected by ciliated hair cells (mechanoreceptors) of the two maculae in the vestibule. When the head tilts, gravity pulls the heavy gel of each macula, bending the sensory cilia and producing a nerve signal._**
**_Dynamic equilibrium is the sense of speed and direction of movement._**
**_It is detected by ciliated hair cells (mechanoreceptors) of the crista ampullaris in the ampulla of each semicircular canal._**
**_When speed or direction of movement of the head changes, the flow of endolymph in the semicircular canals is altered, which causes changes in the bending of sensory cilia, producing a nerve signal._**
**_The vestibular nerve carries nerve impulses from the equilibrium receptors of the vestibule and joins with the cochlear nerve to form the vestibulocochlear nerve, also known as cranial nerve VIII._**
**_Next, we’ll review the sense of taste, which is also called gustation._**
**_Receptors for taste are chemoreceptors called gustatory cells, located in_**
**__taste buds.__**
**_Cranial nerves VII and IX carry gustatory impulses._**
**_Primary taste modes include_**
**_Sweet, which detects sugars;_**
**_Sour, which detects acids;_**
**_Bitter, which detects alkaline solutions;_**
**_Salty, which detects sodium ions;_**
**_Umami or savory, which detects glutamate (an amino acid)._**
**_Currently, other sensations are being studied, including_**
**__metallic_ (to detect metal ions from some foods and blood,_**
**__kokumi_(to detect glutamyl peptides from fermentation or curing) and_**
**__chalky_ (to detect calcium salts in spinach, cheeses, and wines._**
**_Smell is the last special sense to review._**
**_Olfactory receptors are sensory fibers of the olfactory nerve, cranial nerve I. They lie in the olfactory mucosa of the nasal cavity._**
**_These receptors are extremely sensitive, but easily adapt and become fatigued._**
**_Odor-causing chemicals initiate a nerve signal that is interpreted as a specific odor by the brain. Note that olfaction has a strong relationship with emotions and memory._**
**_It is important to realize that all senses are processed and finally perceived in the brain, not in the receptors._**
**_Sensory information is combined to form an overall sensory perception of our world._**
**_For example, flavor is a combination of gustatory and olfactory senses; it can even be affected by other senses, such as touch, pain, and temperature. Nasal congestion interferes with stimulation of olfactory receptors and thereby dulls flavor sensations._**
**_Another example relates to posture and balance: the senses of equilibrium with vision and proprioception combine to help us maintain a safe body position._**
**_Note that some sensory information is processed subconsciously, and like many other functions, our senses may decline as we age._**
**_This concludes the audio review of chapter 10._**
**20251012_193529.jpg**
This file is too large to display. [View in new window](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/20251012-193529-jpg)
**## 9780323871730_Chapter_010.mp3**
Blues
645.624
**## Chapter_010.rtf**
10-4
Audio Chapter Summaries
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
**Patton: Structure & Function of the Body, 17th Edition**
**Chapter 10: Senses**
****Audio Chapter Summaries****
****Welcome to the audio review for Chapter 10: Senses.****
**Senses are classified as general or special.**
**General senses are detected by sensory organs that exist as individual cells or receptor units and are widely distributed throughout the body.**
**Special senses are detected by large and complex organs, or localized grouping of sensory receptors.**
**All sense organs have common functional characteristics:**
**All are able to detect a particular stimulus.**
**A stimulus results in generation of a nerve impulse.**
**A nerve impulse is processed and perceived as a sensation in the central nervous system.**
**Sensory receptor types are classified by the presence of a capsule and by the type of stimuli needed to activate the receptors.**
**Sensory receptors may be encapsulated or unencapsulated. Unencapsulated receptors are also called “free” neuron endings or “naked.”**
**If light is the stimulus for a receptor, it is a photoreceptor.**
**Chemoreceptors are stimulated by chemicals.**
**Pain receptors are stimulated by injury.**
**Changes in temperature stimulate thermoreceptors.**
**Movements or shape changes stimulate mechanoreceptors.**
**The distribution of general senses is widespread, including in deep organs of the body; single-cell receptors are common. The difference in what kind of stimuli is detected is called the**
****mode** of the sensation.**
**Examples of general sensory receptors and their modes include:**
**Free nerve endings that detect pain, temperature, and crude touch;**
**Tactile corpuscles (also known as Meissner corpuscles) that detect fine touch and vibration;**
**Bulbous corpuscles (also called Ruffini corpuscles) that detect touch and pressure;**
**Lamellar corpuscles (also known as Pacini corpuscles) that detect pressure and vibration;**
**Bulboid corpuscles (also called Krause end bulbs) that detect touch; and**
**Tendon organs (also called Golgi tendon organs) and muscle spindles that register proprioception.**
**Next, we’ll review the special senses: vision, hearing and equilibrium, taste, and smell.**
**The eye is the organ of vision. Its complex structure can be best understood by dividing it into three layers: the fibrous, vascular, and inner layers.**
**The fibrous layer is a tough outer coat that includes the sclera or “white” of the eye, and the cornea, the transparent part over the iris.**
**A mucous membrane known as the**
**conjunctiva lines the eyelids and covers the fibrous layer in front. The conjunctiva is kept moist by tears secreted by the lacrimal gland.**
**The vascular layer has a dense network of blood vessels.**
**It includes the choroid, the pigmented, melanin-rich layer that prevents scattering of light and the iris, the colored part of the eye. The pupil is the hole in the center of the iris; contraction of smooth muscle dilates or constricts the pupil.**
**The vascular layer includes the lens as well, the transparent body behind the pupil that focuses or refracts light rays on the retina.**
**Near the front of the vascular layer is the ciliary muscle—just outside the edge of the iris; its contraction affects the shape of the transparent lens just behind the iris, thus altering focus for near objects.**
**The**
****retina** makes up most of the**
**_inner layer_ of the eyeball.**
**It contains microscopic photoreceptor cells to detect light.**
**Most of these receptor cells are called**
**_rods_ and**
**_cones_ because of their shapes.**
****Rods** are the receptors for night and peripheral vision and**
****cones** are the receptors for daytime and color vision.**
**Ganglion cells are the receptors for changing light patterns of days, months, and seasons.**
**Eye fluids include the aqueous humor, located in the anterior chamber in front of the lens; and the vitreous humor in the posterior chamber behind the lens.**
**Be sure to review the visual pathway as well as the structures of vision.**
**Vision detects the intensity or brightness and wavelength or color of light, as well as images and motion. Light must be focused by the eye to form a detectable image.**
**Impulses travel from the rods and cones in the innermost layer of the retina through the bipolar and ganglionic layers of the retina.**
**Nerve impulse leaves the eye through the optic nerve; the point of exit is free of receptors and is therefore called a**
**_blind spot_ known as the optic disk**
**_._**
**__Visual interpretation occurs in the visual cortex of the cerebrum.__**
**_Next, we will review the special senses of hearing and equilibrium._**
**_The ear functions in hearing and equilibrium using receptors called_**
**__mechanoreceptors.__**
**_First be sure you understand the ear’s anatomy. It is divided into the external, middle, and inner ear._**
**_The external ear includes the auricle or pinna, and the external acoustic canal. This curving canal is 2.5 centimeters (or about 1 inch) in length and ends at the tympanic membrane. It contains ceruminous glands._**
**_The middle ear houses the ear ossicles: the malleus, incus, and stapes; and it ends in the oval window. Inflammation of the middle ear is called_**
**__otitis media.__**
**_The auditory tube (also called the eustachian tube) connects the middle ear to the throat._**
**_The inner ear consists of an odd-shaped bony space called the_**
**_**bony labyrinth**. Filled with a watery fluid called_**
**_**perilymph**, the bony labyrinth is divided into the_**
**_**vestibule, semicircular canals,** and the_**
**_**cochlea**. The vestibule is adjacent to the oval window between the semicircular canals and the cochlea._**
**_The membranous labyrinth is a balloonlike membranous sac suspended in the perilymph; it follows the shape of the bony labyrinth and is filled with endolymph._**
**_Now we’ll review the functions of hearing and equilibrium._**
**_Hearing detects changes in intensity and frequency of sound waves, which are pressure waves. Sound waves, funneled by the auricle into the external acoustic canal, vibrate the tympanic membrane. Vibrations of the tympanic membrane are amplified by auditory ossicles and transmitted to the oval window. Vibrations of the oval window trigger vibrations of perilymph, which in turn vibrates the endolymph. Sensory hair cells on the spiral organ (organ of Corti) generate nerve impulses when bent by the movement of surrounding endolymph set in motion by sound waves; they can become damaged by chronic exposure to loud noise._**
**_Equilibrium describes two types of balance: static and dynamic._**
**_Static equilibrium is the sense of gravity._**
**_It is detected by ciliated hair cells (mechanoreceptors) of the two maculae in the vestibule. When the head tilts, gravity pulls the heavy gel of each macula, bending the sensory cilia and producing a nerve signal._**
**_Dynamic equilibrium is the sense of speed and direction of movement._**
**_It is detected by ciliated hair cells (mechanoreceptors) of the crista ampullaris in the ampulla of each semicircular canal._**
**_When speed or direction of movement of the head changes, the flow of endolymph in the semicircular canals is altered, which causes changes in the bending of sensory cilia, producing a nerve signal._**
**_The vestibular nerve carries nerve impulses from the equilibrium receptors of the vestibule and joins with the cochlear nerve to form the vestibulocochlear nerve, also known as cranial nerve VIII._**
**_Next, we’ll review the sense of taste, which is also called gustation._**
**_Receptors for taste are chemoreceptors called gustatory cells, located in_**
**__taste buds.__**
**_Cranial nerves VII and IX carry gustatory impulses._**
**_Primary taste modes include_**
**_Sweet, which detects sugars;_**
**_Sour, which detects acids;_**
**_Bitter, which detects alkaline solutions;_**
**_Salty, which detects sodium ions;_**
**_Umami or savory, which detects glutamate (an amino acid)._**
**_Currently, other sensations are being studied, including_**
**__metallic_ (to detect metal ions from some foods and blood,_**
**__kokumi_(to detect glutamyl peptides from fermentation or curing) and_**
**__chalky_ (to detect calcium salts in spinach, cheeses, and wines._**
**_Smell is the last special sense to review._**
**_Olfactory receptors are sensory fibers of the olfactory nerve, cranial nerve I. They lie in the olfactory mucosa of the nasal cavity._**
**_These receptors are extremely sensitive, but easily adapt and become fatigued._**
**_Odor-causing chemicals initiate a nerve signal that is interpreted as a specific odor by the brain. Note that olfaction has a strong relationship with emotions and memory._**
**_It is important to realize that all senses are processed and finally perceived in the brain, not in the receptors._**
**_Sensory information is combined to form an overall sensory perception of our world._**
**_For example, flavor is a combination of gustatory and olfactory senses; it can even be affected by other senses, such as touch, pain, and temperature. Nasal congestion interferes with stimulation of olfactory receptors and thereby dulls flavor sensations._**
**_Another example relates to posture and balance: the senses of equilibrium with vision and proprioception combine to help us maintain a safe body position._**
**_Note that some sensory information is processed subconsciously, and like many other functions, our senses may decline as we age._**
**_This concludes the audio review of chapter 10._**
**20251012_193529.jpg**
This file is too large to display. [View in new window](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/20251012-193529-jpg)
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